Biotechnology Vocabulary

When it comes to biotechnology, there is a confusing multi-textured vocabulary where many different words can be used to describe the same process. Bioengineering, genetic engineering, genetically modified, genetically modified organism (GMO), genetic editing, gene editing, genome editing and biotechnology are just some of the terms commonly used. We’ve created the follow vocabulary guidance to help food retailers better discuss this topic:

Biotechnology (or Biotech)

Biotechnology (or Biotech) has evolved to include an array of complicated processes that utilize the natural systems found in living things. The resulting technologies are then applied to a wide range of purposes, including for the environment and health care as well as food production and food safety. For example, biotech tools called Marker Assisted Selection can provide the DNA sequence of specific traits in animals or crops without changing their DNA. Biotechnology has supported the creation of non-soil (hydroponic) methods to grow vegetables. However some have used the word “Biotech” interchangeably with “GMO”, “Genetically Engineered” and “Bioengineered” to mean seeds or animals that have been changed to include DNA from another species.

To further confuse things, various organizations have created their own standards for what qualifies as GMO or for non-GMO. The criteria are varied and sometimes self-serving for the locality or industry involved. That’s why, in 2016, Congress passed a law requiring a uniform nation-wide standard for disclosure (labeling) of “Bioengineered” foods. We’ve created the following guidance to help food retailers better respond as customers ask questions about product labels or see news reports on the topic.

Bioengineering/Bioengineered Food

A mandatory labeling claim to be used on many foods and dietary supplements with at least one ingredient that has measurable DNA from another species. The law, to be implemented by 2022, does not include food made from animals that have either been fed or treated with bioengineered products. Nor does it require labeling of foods that are so highly refined that no measurable DNA is present. See also “Derived from Bioengineering.”

Chromosome

A strand of DNA stored in cells that can replicate itself and divide when each cell divides for growth or repair. Humans have 23 chromosomes in our genome which contains the genetic blueprint for every cell in our bodies.

Conventional Breeding

See Cross-Breeding

CRISPR

A gene editing tool that mirrors the way that cells repair damaged DNA. Was first demonstrated in 2013. CRISPR allows scientists to make edits in precise places along a DNA strand. Also known as Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats.

Cross-Breeding

Deliberately inter-breeding (crossing) related individuals to produce new varieties. For example, Pluots are the result of cross-breeding apricots with plums. Multiple generations of back-crossing are needed to obtain the desired traits with any unintended traits removed. Also called conventional, traditional or selective breeding.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

Is a double stranded molecule that holds genetic codes and is found in all living things. DNA forms the genes that provide inherited traits. It tells cells what proteins to make for growth and metabolism.

Derived from Bioengineering

A food labeling claim used voluntarily on any food or dietary supplement that does not contain DNA from another species. However, at least one ingredient in the product was made through bioengineering. Examples include dairy products from cattle treated with a bioengineered hormone (rBST) to enhance milk production or meats from animals that were fed bioengineered crops like corn, soybeans or alfalfa. This claim could also be used on products that are so highly refined that no DNA is present. Examples could include refined corn, soybean and canola oils.

Enzyme

Are vital proteins that speed up the chemical reactions taking place within cells. For example, they aid in digestion, metabolism and immune function.

Gene

The most basic unit of heredity. Includes a segment of a DNA strand that is able to direct a specific function in the body.

Gene Editing

Involved in food production as a breeding method to improve both plants and animals. Also promising as a bio-medical tool to address inherited diseases. It starts with a clear understanding of the genetic sequence and DNA location of selected traits. Uses an enzyme system to precisely edit (turn on, turn off or add to) the DNA. Gene Editing typically does not add DNA from another species but rather works with traits that are already found in a given species, therefore labeling is not usually required.

Genetic Engineering

Involves direct manipulation of the genetic material of a living thing, for example, creating a bacteria to produce human insulin and other medications. Includes a number of different technologies including Recombinant DNA (GMO) and Gene Editing. Can be used to insert genes or knock them out, either randomly or to a specific part of the genome. This term had previously been used interchangeably with Biotech or GMO. However, it is not currently a regulated food labeling term, like “Bioengineered”.

Genetic Trait

Characteristics of a plant or animal that are encoded within their genome and thereby inherited from generation to generation.

Genome

The complete genetic blueprint of a living thing, containing all of its genes and DNA.

Genome Editing

See Gene Editing

GMO (Genetically Modified Organism)

A plant, animal or microorganism with new or enhanced genetic traits. A DNA sequence from another living thing, often from a different species, is introduced into the genome. Also referred to as Recombinant DNA technology, Gene Spliced, Genetic Engineered or Transgenic. See “Bioengineered” for mandatory labeling info.

Mutagen

Substances such as radiation or chemicals that can create random changes in the genetic material of living things.

Mutagenesis

A biotech tool used by plant breeders for over 75 years. NOT considered genetic engineering or bioengineering. Seeds are treated with mutagens such as ionizing radiation or strong chemicals to induce random mutations to their genetic material, aiming for a desired trait. Examples include seedless watermelon and ruby red grapefruit. Currently allowed in both conventional and organic agriculture.

Non-GMO

A voluntary labeling claim promoted by a group of food companies in 2009 when they formed the Non-GMO Project Verified. Requires a paper trail of affidavits to determine that ingredients in food products have not in any way been bioengineered or fed/treated with bioengineered substances. The absence of bioengineered disclosure does not mean that a product can be labeled as non-GMO. That’s because bioengineered disclosure is only required when DNA from another species is present. Many non-GMO ingredients contain no measurable DNA even though they were made from or fed bioengineered crops.

Polyploidy

Both wild and cultivated plants can have entire extra sets of chromosomes. Polyploidy (such as triploid and diploid) has been a major tool for plant breeders using traditional breeding techniques over the past century. NOT considered bioengineering. Plants with polyploidy can outperform relatives in several aspects. Hybrid corn can be an example.

Protoplast Fusion (Somatic Fusion)

A type of genetic engineering where cells or cellular components from two different living things are combined. Able to transfer traits between species and potentially create an entirely different variety of plant. Currently allowed in both conventional and organic agriculture. One example: Triticale, a grain first made from fusing wheat with rye in the 1950s.

RNA

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is present in all living cells and acts as a messenger to translate instructions from DNA in order to make various proteins.

Species

A group of living organisms that are capable of sharing genetic information through breeding (ie, they are sexually compatible)

Sustainability

The ability to maintain conditions most often referring to the environment but also to economic, social or public health systems.

Traditional Breeding

See cross-breeding

Transgenesis

Involves addition of genetic material (DNA) from another species to create a new variety of plant or animal with desired traits. Also known as a GMO. Bioengineered labeling will be required in most food products that contain transgenic DNA.

USDA Certified Organic

Does not allow several production methods common to modern agriculture. Organic products cannot be bioengineered, irradiated or be produced with antibiotics or certain pesticides. Nor can animals be fed bioengineered crops or be treated with medications produced through bioengineering. Other biotech methods, such as Mutagenesis, Marker Assisted Selection, Gene Editing, Hydroponics, Polyploidy and Protoplast Fusion have not yet been excluded from Certified Organic, however they are current topics of debate among organic stakeholders.